PAUL'S LETTERS · TWIN LETTERS · ROMANS 16 · OPEN QUESTIONS · THE CANON

Side by side, and how they were read

Pairs of letters, the people Paul greets, and how the church received them.

TWIN LETTERS

Ephesians and Colossians

Thirty-one passages that run in parallel. Click a ribbon to keep it.

Thirty-one passages that run in parallel, paired from reading both letters and checked against Easton's list. Each weight is the number of distinct content words (by Strong's number, leaving out the commonest words) the two passages share in the Textus Receptus, so it measures shared vocabulary, not shared ideas. Other measures differ: ISBE finds 78 of Ephesians' 155 verses in Colossians "in varying degrees of identity"; Easton, quoting an older writer, counts about forty-two parallels. The household code (wives, husbands, children, fathers, servants, masters) runs in the same order in both. Ephesians 5:22–6:9 Colossians 3:18–4:1 [8][14]

ROMANS 16

The people of Paul's greetings

Every name in Romans 16. Choose a person to see who they were and where else Scripture names them.

  • Phebe (Phoebe) A servant of the church at Cenchrea, commended to Rome; probably the bearer of the letter. our sister ... a succourer of many, and of myself also a servant of the church which is at Cenchrea receive her in the Lord ... assist her BRIDGE Romans 16:1–2 Romans 16:1 Romans 16:2
  • The church at Cenchrea a servant of the church which is at Cenchrea CHURCH Romans 16:1
  • The believers at Rome receive her in the Lord ... assist her CHURCH Romans 1:7 Romans 16:2 Romans 16:3–4 +11 more
  • Priscilla A church met in her and Aquila's house (Rom 16:5); Acts 18:2 says they had left Rome when Claudius expelled the Jews. my helpers in Christ Jesus ... who have for my life laid down their own necks GREETED Romans 16:3–4
  • Aquila A church met in his and Priscilla's house (Rom 16:5). my helpers in Christ Jesus ... who have for my life laid down their own necks GREETED Romans 16:3–4
  • Epaenetus my wellbeloved ... the firstfruits of Achaia unto Christ GREETED Romans 16:5
  • Mary who bestowed much labour on us GREETED Romans 16:6
  • Andronicus my kinsmen, and my fellowprisoners ... of note among the apostles GREETED Romans 16:7
  • Junia my kinsmen, and my fellowprisoners ... of note among the apostles GREETED Romans 16:7
  • Amplias my beloved in the Lord GREETED Romans 16:8
  • Urbane our helper in Christ GREETED Romans 16:9
  • Stachys my beloved GREETED Romans 16:9
  • Apelles approved in Christ GREETED Romans 16:10
  • Herodion my kinsman GREETED Romans 16:11
  • Tryphena who labour in the Lord GREETED Romans 16:12
  • Tryphosa who labour in the Lord GREETED Romans 16:12
  • Persis the beloved, which laboured much in the Lord GREETED Romans 16:12
  • Rufus Greeted with "his mother and mine". chosen in the Lord GREETED Romans 16:13
  • Asyncritus Greeted with four others "and the brethren which are with them". greeted GREETED Romans 16:14
  • Phlegon greeted GREETED Romans 16:14
  • Hermas greeted GREETED Romans 16:14
  • Patrobas greeted GREETED Romans 16:14
  • Hermes greeted GREETED Romans 16:14
  • Philologus Greeted with four others "and all the saints which are with them". greeted GREETED Romans 16:15
  • Julia greeted GREETED Romans 16:15
  • Nereus Greeted with "his sister". greeted GREETED Romans 16:15
  • Olympas greeted GREETED Romans 16:15
  • The household of Aristobulus them which are of Aristobulus' household HOUSEHOLD Romans 16:10
  • The household of Narcissus the household of Narcissus, which are in the Lord HOUSEHOLD Romans 16:11
  • Timotheus (Timothy) my workfellow SENDER Romans 16:21
  • Lucius my kinsmen SENDER Romans 16:21
  • Jason my kinsmen SENDER Romans 16:21
  • Sosipater Often identified with the Sopater of Berea in Acts 20:4, though neither text says so. my kinsmen SENDER Romans 16:21
  • Tertius who wrote this epistle SENDER Romans 16:22
  • Gaius A Gaius of Corinth was baptised by Paul (1 Cor 1:14). mine host, and of the whole church SENDER Romans 16:23
  • Erastus the chamberlain of the city SENDER Romans 16:23
  • Quartus a brother SENDER Romans 16:23

Paul greets 24 believers at Rome by name, and two households, though he had never been there; eight people with him at Corinth send their own greetings; and Phebe of Cenchrea, carrying his commendation, links the two. Each line carries Paul's own words about the person. Easton counts the same twenty-four. Romans 16:1–23 [14]

OPEN QUESTIONS

Where readers have differed

8 questions about these letters. Each answer is shown with the people who held it; this page does not choose between them.

North Galatia

Earlier scholars up to Lightfoot and Salmon; later Chase, Dods, Sabatier, Harnack, H. Holtzmann, Jülicher, Lipsius, Mommsen, Schmiedel, Schürer and others; Findlay himself (as listed by Findlay, ISBE)

The letter went to churches in old Galatia around Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium, which Paul first reached on his second journey when he passed through "the region of Galatia". On this view the letter is later rather than earlier. Robertson judged in 1915 that it "still has the weight of authority". Acts 16:6 Acts 18:23 [5][18][1]

South Galatia

First proposed by Mynster (1825); then Perrot, Renan, Pfleiderer, Weizsäcker, Ramsay, von Soden, Bartlet, Gifford, Rendall, Sanday ("with hesitation") and others (as listed by Findlay, ISBE)

The letter went to Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe, the churches Paul founded on his first journey, all inside the Roman province of Galatia. Ramsay's books made this view widely known from 1895, and some of its supporters make Galatians the earliest of Paul's letters. Acts 13:14–14:23 [17][5][1]

THE CANON

How they were received

Witness by witness, when each letter was quoted, used and accepted.

WHERE THIS PAGE COMES FROM

  • A. T. Robertson, Paul, the Apostle (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), parts 1 (Sources), 3 (Chronology of Paul's Career), 4 (Equipment) and 5 (Work); checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • H. C. G. Moule, Romans, Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • R. Dykes Shaw, Corinthians, First Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • R. Dykes Shaw, Corinthians, Second Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • George G. Findlay, Galatians, Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • Rollin Hough Walker, Thessalonians, the First Epistle of Paul to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • Rollin Hough Walker, Thessalonians, the Second Epistle of Paul to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • Charles Smith Lewis, Ephesians, Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • Charles Smith Lewis, Colossians, Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • Charles Smith Lewis, Philemon, Epistle to (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • Doremus Almy Hayes, Philippians, the Epistle to the (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • John Rutherfurd, Pastoral Epistles (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • E. J. Banks, Colossae (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia) (1915), checked against CrossWire's digital ISBE (1915), 2026-10-07.
  • M. G. Easton, Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897), entries on each letter, its city and Paul's companions.
  • W. J. Conybeare and J. S. Howson, The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, vol. 1 (first published 1852) (1864), New York printing, pp. 333-337 (Thessalonica) and 415-416 (Corinth).
  • W. J. Conybeare and J. S. Howson, The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, new edition (first published 1852) (1891), chs. XXV-XXVII.
  • W. M. Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895), Chronological Index; ch. 5, Foundation of the Churches of Galatia.
  • J. B. Lightfoot, Saint Paul's Epistle to the Galatians (1865), Introduction II-III (pp. 20, 36-40); note on Gal 6:11 (pp. 220-221).
  • J. B. Lightfoot, Saint Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, 4th ed. (1878), pp. 30-46, 69, 74-77, 95-99, 138-142.
  • J. B. Lightfoot, Saint Paul's Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon (1875), Introduction ch. I-II; The Epistle from Laodicea (pp. 340-366); Philemon introduction (pp. 369-395).
  • Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 1: Apostolic Christianity (revised ed.) (1890), sections 88-99.
  • John Calvin (trans. William Pringle), Commentary on Galatians (1548) (1854), on Gal 2:1.
  • Clement of Rome (trans. J. B. Lightfoot), 1 Clement (1891), 5:5-7; 35:5-6; 47:1-3.
  • Clement of Rome (Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1), 1 Clement (1885), ch. 5.
  • Ignatius (trans. J. B. Lightfoot), To the Ephesians (1891), 18:1.
  • Ignatius (Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1), To the Ephesians (1885), chs. 1 and 12.
  • Polycarp (trans. J. B. Lightfoot), To the Philippians (1891), 2:2; 3:3; 5:1; 6:1-2; 11:2-4.
  • Polycarp (trans. Roberts and Donaldson, Ante-Nicene Christian Library), Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians (1867), chs. 3, 4, 9, 11, 12.
  • Irenaeus (Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1), Against Heresies (1885), I preface; III.3.3; III.7; III.13-16; IV.21.2; V.2.3; V.6.1; V.25.1.
  • Clement of Alexandria (Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 2), Stromata (1885), I.14.
  • Tertullian (trans. Peter Holmes, Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 3), Against Marcion, book 5 (1885), chs. 2-21.
  • Unknown (Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 5), The Muratorian Fragment (Canon Muratorianus) (1886).
  • Eusebius (trans. A. C. McGiffert, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 2, vol. 1), Church History (1890), II.22; II.25.5; III.3.5; III.4.
  • Suetonius (trans. J. C. Rolfe), Life of Claudius (1914), 25.4.
  • Ernst Ranke (ed.), Codex Fuldensis: Novum Testamentum Latine interprete Hieronymo (1868), Latin prologues to the Pauline letters (manuscript copied about AD 546).

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